Online learning gained international attention when MOOCs emerged in 2008 and gained considerable popularity in 2012 (Pappano, 2012). When Downes and Siemens first conceived of MOOCs, they did so with the intention of creating an entirely new network-based pedagogy that Downes (2008) defined as connectivism. Connectivism is described in this context as the thesis that learning consists of constructing and navigating through networks of connections. Downes argues that knowledge exists within these networks of connections, between people and spaces. In this sense, learning and knowledge cannot be acquired or delivered, but rather must come from people connecting their diverse opinions.
This connects with theory associated with communities of practice, which refers to the community as a living curriculum (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Collective learning occurs in these spaces through educators sharing practice and developing new knowledge through ongoing interaction (Sentance, 2016). Online communities of practice have particular affordances with reach and access, allowing for wider networks to develop and creating more opportunities to document the institutional memory of the community through online resource banks, for example. While the literature has offered many potential benefits of teachers utilising online platforms that enable the exchange of knowledge, there remains a limited understanding of the ways in which educators participate in these platforms and the impact of their participation on their perceptions and practices (Hood, 2018). The literature presents a number of challenges regarding online and blended learning formats for in-service teachers, which include:
MOOCs are often associated with social constructivism. Vygotsky’s theory of social constructivism emphasises the importance of sociocultural learning and the learners’ prior knowledge and experiences, which are often determined by their social and cultural environment. Learning is therefore done by students ‘constructing’ knowledge out of their experiences. The origin of the theory is also linked to Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, which focused on how humans make meaning in relation to the interaction between their experiences and their ideas. The structure of MOOCs (in theory) lends itself to social constructivism because the responsibility of learning resides with the learner and they are actively involved in the learning process. In practice, however, MOOCs have been met with an exceeding amount of criticism for not meeting their purported objectives.
In response to this, mechanical MOOCs are a slightly different take on the more traditional and commonly recognised MOOC. The Peer 2 Peer University (P2PU) offers a core example of this approach. In a mechanical MOOC, a separate platform is built as bespoke for each course with the use of open source software, and is conceptualised as a community home base. This form of MOOC is largely based on constructionism, which builds on Jean Piaget’s epistemological theory of constructivism. This advocates for keeping the learner as central in the design and delivery of the course, and offering opportunities for discovery learning whereby educators can use knowledge they are familiar with to acquire more knowledge. Related to this is Seymour Papert’s (1980) constructivist theory of psychology, which argues that learning is a process of reconstructing knowledge rather than it being transmitted. This places significant importance in providing opportunities for learners to construct a meaningful product, and for the teacher in these environments to take on a mediational role rather than an instructional one.
Rather than using ICT as a pathway for information exchange, the literature has called for evidence regarding creating explicit conditions for interactive learning (Deng & Yuen, 2013; Kirkwood, 2009; Parr, Ellis & Bulfin, 2013; Simpson, 2015). Using technology-enhanced practices such as online learning formats can support interactive learning by developing new forms of dialogue and opening a ‘dialogic space for reflection’ (Wegerif et al., 2017), two-way interaction, and peer learning. In an article that focused on the pedagogic value of dialogue to strengthen pre-service teachers’ reflective practices and improve their knowledge about the power of talk for learning, Simpson (2015) profiles the use of social networks as a means of incorporating more interactive discourse through Web 2.0 platforms in higher education. The article used Alexander’s principles of dialogic learning to interrogate the data set and showed the positive impact that dialogic pedagogy had on how the students valued their learning experiences. This creates a strong case for the affordances of technology for further research to build on and explore.
New technology-focused professional development programmes and pilots are starting by a number of public and private initiatives. Across this technological landscape, the role of technology to support teacher professional development needs more evidence to be better understood. Rigorous data collection is needed that documents the efficacy of pedagogical approaches on the attainment of learning outcomes and changes in practice.